In its historical evolution, the "female" side of the Longobard world displays characteristics that are highly varied and often unique within the context of the Early Middle Ages. The initial mystical and magical role embodied by Gambara—the founding matriarch—gives way to the status of women from aristocratic lineages, who were subject to the political exigencies of dynastic marriages. Also notable are the roles of women who wielded power or inspired faith and works of art, and those who entered monastic life; finally, there are the legal prerogatives attached to the female condition, the legal status of women associated with magic and witchcraft, and the role of the first women to engage in medical studies.

IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Dynastic marriages—the political value of noblewomen became firmly established in the 5th century, when the Longobards of the second great migration were already settled in the Pannonian region. Their king, Wacho—of the ancient Lethingi lineage—pursued an intensive dynastic policy by successively marrying noblewomen from the Thuringians, Gepids, and Heruli. Austrigusa of the Gepids bore Wacho two daughters, Wisigarda and Waldrada; the former would marry Theudebert I, King of the Franks of Austrasia and Aquitaine.

Waldrada’s fate was different; after unhappy marriages to two other Frankish kings, she eventually became the wife of Garibald I, Duke of the Bavarians. Their daughter, Theodelinda, founded the Bavarian-Lethingi dynasty of the Longobard kings of Italy.

An analysis of the Longobard royal family tree confirms a system of equal inheritance rights among siblings, regardless of gender. When the heir was a woman, her husband would rule on her behalf; upon her death, the right to the throne would pass to her brother, and so on, until the initial line of succession was exhausted. Historically, however, there were significant periods of regency exercised by widowed queens or mothers of underage heirs. This was the case, for instance, with Theodelinda herself; Theodorada of Benevento; Rodelinda, known as the "helmswoman" of the kingdom; Aloara of Capua; Sichelgaita of Salerno (reproduced in the image in the introductory box)—who played an active role in organizing the historic Council of Melfi—and, finally, a charismatic figure with whom this overview can conclude: Matilda of Canossa, a powerful Great Countess of Longobard lineage.

Abbesses as Managers – Many women of the royal and ducal aristocracy championed and supported the founding and expansion of churches and monasteries—enriching them with works of art—and often found refuge within them. The administration of these monasteries was entrusted to abbesses—early examples of female managers—who skillfully managed the family assets placed in their care, transforming the monasteries into veritable enterprises that drove development and prosperity in their respective regions. Their achievements were on par with those of the monks in the great abbeys.

THE STATUS OF WOMEN

In the Longobard society that took root in the Kingdom of Italy, women played an active role in economic and social life. A woman’s status, viewed within the context of the family unit, was regulated and protected by the first written law code (the Edict of Rothari, 643). In short, although a woman was subject to *mundio*—a form of legal guardianship exercised by a man known as a *mundualdo* (such as a father, brother, or husband)—she possessed her own assets and enjoyed significant rights. For instance, she was free to manage her property as she saw fit and could participate in the buying and selling of goods—acting as either seller or buyer—provided she obtained the consent of her *mundualdo*. Veiled women—that is, nuns—were exempt from *mundio*.

The Dowry and the Morning Gift – A woman’s personal assets were primarily established through marriage. First came the *fiderfio* (dowry) provided by her father, supplemented by the *morgingab* (morning gift)—a gift from the groom following the wedding night, formalized in a written document before witnesses. Under the laws of Liutprand, this gift was capped at a maximum of 25 percent of the groom’s total assets. The *morgingab* remained under the woman’s own management for life, as it was her exclusive property.

WOMEN AND MAGIC

This narrative is defined by the close relationship between women and Nature: the maternal roles of gestation, childbirth, and nursing embodied the direct expression of Nature within them, fostering a deep connection to the knowledge of Nature’s vital resources. Tending to vegetative cycles and understanding the nutritional and therapeutic powers of herbs were areas for which women showed a particular aptitude. Over time, this knowledge would become as crucial as it was dangerous for women themselves during historical periods when ignorance and superstition prevailed over science.

Throughout history, the presence of magic and herbal knowledge—of which women were the custodians—continued to influence the lives of Longobard communities. This situation manifested in two contrasting ways: on one hand, the perception of certain practices and rituals as "magical"; on the other, the acceptance of women as both students and teachers at the renowned Salerno Medical School and as pioneers in the development of specific gynecological specializations.

Magical women—the first encounter in the origin myth is with Gambara, mother of the brothers Ibor and Aio. They were leaders of the Scandinavian Winnili tribe and guided their people's initial migration toward the North Germanic coasts. There, a clash with the Vandals loomed; in preparation, Gambara acted as an intermediary with the Norse deities—specifically Freya and, through her, Wotan, the supreme god. Wotan promised victory to the people he saw first at daybreak. At sunrise, he spotted the Winnili first; their women—seeking to make the tribe appear to have a vast number of warriors—had styled their hair to resemble men's beards. Thus came the promise of victory, along with the name the god bestowed upon the people: Longobards. According to some interpretations, this myth reflects an early matriarchal structure in Longobard society, which gave way to a patriarchal system when the men—previously dedicated to hunting—took on the role of defending food supplies and transformed into warriors.

The Eye of the Law – Legal provisions regarding magic and "witches" were included in the Edict of Rothari (643). However, the crime lay in the illicit actions of those who accused women or girls—particularly free women—of being witches or *masche* (the latter being a figure from Germanic tradition associated with practices such as anthropophagy). Making an unproven accusation was considered a "heinous" crime. If a woman’s father or brother committed this act, they would forfeit all rights over her. If the unjust accusation came from her husband, the woman could return to her family of origin or entrust all her assets to the king's court. The consequences were far more severe if a man leveled an accusation of witchcraft or prostitution against a free woman who was under the authority of another man. Should the accuser repent, he was required to take a solemn oath stating he had acted in the heat of anger and to make amends for the offense with a compensatory payment. Conversely, if he claimed he could prove the charge, a judicial duel against a champion defending the accused woman became necessary. The judge oversaw the confrontation to ensure that neither combatant carried magical herbs capable of influencing the outcome of the duel.

The Witches of Benevento – The figure of the witch and the associated legends persisted within lingering pagan beliefs, particularly in Southern Italy. Here, the legend of the "witches of Benevento" flourished, centering on their nocturnal dances along the banks of the Sabato River—specifically around a sacred walnut tree that Bishop Saint Barbatus would later have uprooted in an effort to eradicate idolatry. Known in the local dialect as *janare*, these witches were said to possess the ability to pass through closed doors; they were regarded as harbingers of misfortune and infertility, and were believed to perpetrate horrific curses, particularly against children. In the laws of Liutprand (promulgated between 712 and 744), the legislator—guided by Christian ideals—turned his attention to a different issue: that of soothsayers and cults linked to the natural world. Such practices were condemned as crimes against God. Anyone who became aware of such activities was duty-bound to report them; failure to do so—if the silence were discovered—carried the risk of being accused of the very same crime.

Women in the Salerno Medical School

*Mulieres Salernitanae* – Salerno’s rapid cultural growth and the convergence of diverse cultures gave rise—between the 9th and 10th centuries—to the prestigious Salerno Medical School, considered a proto-university. It was founded on the integration of the Greco-Latin tradition with knowledge derived from Arab and Jewish cultures. The School represents a pivotal moment in the history of medicine and in the legitimization of the role of female physicians. The innovations introduced—grounded in the empirical method of practice and experience—paved the way for approaches to prophylaxis and disease prevention. The women admitted to study, and subsequently to medical practice and teaching—known as the *mulieres salernitanae*—distinguished themselves in the fields of gynecology, obstetrics, and cosmetics. Foremost among them was the midwife and obstetrician Trotula de’ Ruggiero (9th century), author of specialized treatises on women's ailments and cosmetics. Other notable colleagues included Rebecca Guarna, Abella Salernitana, Mercuriade, and Costanza Calenda.