(Photo: courtesy by F. Terrazzani)

Throughout the millennia of human history, the conquest of power has been achieved predominantly through force of arms, military organization, popular impetus, or the tactical genius and deeds of commanders: all elements that have fueled the imagination of historians, playwrights, and poets, and ignited the imaginations of the people with the boldness or breadth of their undertakings. But power, once acquired by force, must then be managed, because it is the quality or originality of its exercise and its more or less beneficial effects on civil and social life that ultimately are judged by history.

This premise is necessary when considering the millennia-long history of the Longobard peoples: was it a dark and unremarkable period, as it was long portrayed, or a singular and fruitful era in European history? The question was resolved by UNESCO, which in 2011 provided a clear direction: Longobard culture at its peak was recognized as the "primary root of European culture, later developed by the Carolingians." This statement is absolutely relevant today, considering the European institutions' ongoing commitment to promoting awareness of cultural elements capable of strengthening citizens—and especially younger generations—a sense of shared belonging.

Migration- Integration

Contemporary historiography adds a further piece to the assessment of the Longobard historical experience, attributing it the prerogative of "a successful early medieval example of the migration-integration phenomenon." This assessment is reinforced by an examination of the Edict of Rothari (the first written law of the Longobards), which specifies that the waregangi (immigrants to the kingdom) could obtain the privilege of living according to their own laws, but were nevertheless subject to Longobard law. The granting of this privilege expresses the Longobards' tolerance and openness toward people of other peoples: all the more so considering that the Edict of 643 is recognized as a codification of traditional customs and habits, rather than an innovative organization of Longobard society in Italy. Therefore, by natural, ancestral predisposition, the Gens Langobardorum was open and willing to welcome and develop the experiences, traditions, and cultures of other peoples. The following summary outlines the growth path of Longobard civilization in the relationship between military evolution and social development.

1st century b.C. – From myth to History

• Political-Social Aspect – The myth of their origins aside, the first mention of the Longobards' existence appears in the account of the Roman expedition across the Rhine in 5 AD, written by Velleius Paterculus, a cavalry officer. For him, the Longobard tribe was "more ferocious than the Germanic ferocity itself." A hundred years later, Tacitus, in his work "Germania," praises the "little people" of the Longobards for their courage in battle and for their ability to defend themselves "thanks to military valor and daring in combat." More generally, Tacitus recognizes the Germanic peoples, and therefore also the Longobards, for their spirit of independence and tribal pride, and admires their moral integrity, the simplicity and austerity of their customs, and the high value of hospitality.
• Military Aspect – From its origins, the Longobard army consisted of the entire population in arms: every man was a warrior. Military strength was based on extended family clans. In times of need, the clans would unite, assigning command in the specific circumstance to the leader deemed the bravest or most skilled. Considering Longobard military habits similar to those of other Germanic groups, it can be deduced that they too fought primarily on foot, half-naked or covered in furs, wielding light weapons and operating in dense wedge formations. Strength came from the infantry—armed with spears, arrows, and small swords—as the military use of horses was very limited and reserved for a few nobles.

2nd-3rd-(4th) century - New migratory stage

• Political and social aspects - About seventy years after Tacitus' Germania, the Longobards are included in the coalition of Germanic tribes opposing the legions of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the "Marcomannic War" (167-169). After the defeat of the Longobard coalition, there is no further documentary evidence. The Origo text refers to the beginning of a slow phase of migration toward the middle course of the Elbe and present-day northern Bohemia. This movement, consisting of successive small infiltrations, developed between the 2nd and 4th centuries. However, a portion of the Longobards remained near the Elbe until the second half of the 4th century.
• Military aspects - It is possible that during this phase, the assimilation of initial military elements, borrowed from the experience of direct contact with the Romans, began. This could include the initial and more extensive use of the horse and a focus on personal protective equipment.

(IV)-V-VI century - Evolution in Pannonia

• Political and social aspects - Between the 4th and 5th centuries, Longobard tribal organization underwent significant transformations, primarily with the consolidation of the military system and the stabilization of a chain of command initially organized around a king chosen from among the dukes (consolidated leaders of the phare) and approved by the assembly of the armed people. Concurrent with this evolutionary phase—also marked by the dramatic rise of the Huns in European history—was the social and military strengthening. In Central and Eastern Europe, the Longobards successfully clashed with other tribes and implemented a shrewd policy of assimilation, integrating the vanquished and their allies into their ranks. And while the first dynastic line of kings (the Lethingi) assumed power, a diplomatic system of alliances, also based on marriage policies, began. This essentially defined the Longobards' "new entry" among the great powers of the time. In 547, another Longobard dynasty finally took power, that of the Gausi, represented by King Audoin and his son Alboin, both engaged in the final struggle against the Gepids and in the prudent adjustment with respect to the arrival of a new fearsome power coming from the Eurasian steppes: the Avars.
• Military Aspect – While infantry and archers remained in use, this phase saw the development of cavalry with its associated equipment: spears, swords, shields, and sax (a broad-bladed knife). In the typically Germanic battle formation, infantry positioned themselves with light cavalry on the flanks. Tactical developments included the relationship with the saddle. Contact with the Romans and the steppe peoples resulted in the more efficient use of mounted combat, including the initial use of Avar-derived stirrups to ensure greater stability and balance for the rider, even when throwing javelins or arrows. The use of the first segmented armor, of Persian design, is also considered.

568-774 – Kingdom in Italy

• Political-Social Aspect - Considering the Pannonian phase of the Longobard migration as a training ground for political, diplomatic, military, religious, and moral development, in 568 a new people—complex yet united—set out for Italy, led by the Longobard aristocratic elite and well-equipped with political and military experience. With the conquest of Italian territory and the birth of the kingdom, in the 7th century, the social division between arimanni, aldi, and slaves became structural. It was regulated by written laws issued by King Rotari and King Liutprand and served both the military administration of the territory and agricultural work. These social classes reflect the organization of a warrior people who began their metamorphosis from nomadic to sedentary and, over the course of decades, developed a progressive fusion with the pre-existing Roman population, which in turn was assimilating Longobard military customs, partly transforming itself into possessores – like the arimanni – and partly reducing itself to carrying out the role of cultivators, free or serfs, on other people's lands.
• Military Laws - A further innovation stems from the settlement system implemented by the Longobards, which consisted of the occupation of cities and the creation of military-agricultural strongholds in Roman villas, entrusted to groups of arimanni, and in new fortified territorial garrisons. Military functions and productive tasks thus became equivalent and preceded the final and definitive change: that introduced in the 8th century by King Aistulf's "military laws," which, by establishing compulsory military service, innovated the distribution of social classes, divided by wealth. The arimanni and possessores were burdened with military duties, graduated by level of wealth, as well as active participation in public assemblies, assistance in court proceedings, and the maintenance of roads and bridges.
• Armaments - At the beginning of the 8th century, the infantry strength of the Italo-Longobards was steadily strengthened by cavalry units divided into "light" and "heavy" cavalry. The former was equipped with short scramasaxes (single-edged), lances, bows and arrows, axes, and reinforced shields; the latter relied on helmeted cuirasses, Persian-inspired lamellar cuirasses, long swords, bows and arrows, and javelins.

774-1077 – Southern Principalities

• Political and social aspects. Birth of Langobardia Minor - While from the 6th century onwards, the Duchy of Benevento was the Longobard outpost in Southern Italy, constantly at odds with the Byzantine coastal enclaves (such as Naples, Bari, and Calabria), with the end of the Longobard kingdom, a spirit of full independence asserted itself in Southern Italy with the transformation of the Duchy of Benevento into a Principality by Duke-Prince Arechi II. He resisted Charlemagne's initial, albeit less than decisive, attempts to seize control of the southern peninsula, which from that point on faced its own historical events, maintaining direct Longobard rule for another 300 years.

During these three centuries, the area was divided between the principalities of Benevento and Salerno, to which the Principality of Capua was added in 900. The relations between these three poles were complex and often conflictual, subject to the constant ambitions of the Byzantines and, in the final stages, of the Saracens - who were repeatedly repelled - and of the Normans who eventually took possession of the territories, establishing themselves as the new power of the South.

During the reign of Arechi II, it is important to remember the new prince's commitment to maintaining Longobard prestige, even in the symbolic places of power: he transformed Benevento into a "Pavia geminum," the twin capital of Pavia, even in its splendor. He built the Santa Sofia complex, modeled after San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, as a mausoleum, palatine chapel, and temple of reference for the Longobards of the South, and provided the city with a mint. He transformed Salerno, creating a virtually impregnable defense system and building his own palace there. Arechi also took in refugees from the Longobard kingdom. After this, Longobard southern Italy experienced internal strife, divisions, temporary reunifications, and periodic clashes with the Byzantines and, in the final decades of the 10th and 11th centuries, with the Saracens and Normans.

• Military Aspect - The Longobards' overall military capabilities in Southern Italy were applied more to territorial resistance and diplomacy than to conquest. Therefore, specific efforts were made to induce the calculated fragmentation of their rivals through diplomacy. It is true that Benevento and Salerno cyclically defended themselves from imperial attempts—first by the Franks, then by the Saxon emperors, and, most importantly, by the Byzantine emperors—to seize control. This state of constant alert favored the fortification of cities and the creation of rural fortresses, which later became castles, many of which were eventually expanded or modified by the Normans. The armies of each duchy became more compact and aggressive, strengthened by the strong presence of cavalry, capable of striking unexpectedly into Byzantine territories. Diplomatic skill compensated for the military's numerical weakness, creating highly fluid alliances and unscrupulous political maneuvers. Among the latter was the initiation of hiring Saracen and Norman mercenaries to fight internal rivals. This self-destructive decision led to the exhaustion of the Longobards' military function and the reduction of their role of dominion and control to one of mere political survival.