(In the title: the Edict of Rothari)

Brief references in the writings of Roman and other historians, combined with archaeological evidence that is often difficult to interpret—these are the sources that have shed light on the tribal power structure of Germanic peoples in general. References to the *Gens Langobardorum* are no exception; evidence regarding them exists not only in passing mentions by Tacitus and Velleius Paterculus but also in the (later) chronicles of Paul the Deacon and in clues derived from their first written law, the Edict of Rothari. The situation differs, however, for the Pannonian and Italian phases, during which the Longobard power system and its stages of evolution are well understood.

• Germanic Phase

During the period of settlement in the lower Elbe region, the tribe consisted of farmers, herders, and hunters. Origin myths recount the names of the legendary early leaders who guided the migration from Scandinavian lands to "Germanic" territories. The tribe was composed of family groups that—according to the elders' accounts—celebrated the lineage's origin myth, the group's identity, and the noble ancestry of the ruling family. Assemblies made important decisions and, in the event of imminent conflict, appointed a leader chosen from among the bravest warriors. Thus, social and military structures formed a unified whole. Women performed operational tasks related to the family, though some also held prophetic and divinatory roles. In the second half of the 2nd century AD, the Longobard "political" system—pressured by the large-scale movements of Germanic tribes—began to shift toward expanding its sphere of activity, adopting a more aggressive stance. Evidence of this is found in the participation of Longobard groups in the confederation led by the Marcomanni—a force ultimately defeated by Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the Pannonian region starting in 167 AD. Yet, the path for the future had already been charted.

• The Pannonian Phase

During the 3rd century, the first Longobard movements toward Central-Eastern Europe took place, evolving into a major migration over the following two centuries. Profound changes occurred within the Pannonian region regarding the organization of Longobard society and the exercise of power. A transformation process began, leading to the creation of a government system organized around *farae* (extended clans comprising warriors, families, and slaves). The core of this society—and the backbone of its militia—consisted of free, armed men known as *arimanni*, while the *aldii* were semi-free men who supported the army. Each *fara*—led by a *dux* drawn from the most noble or powerful family—ensured internal cohesion. At the same time, the Longobards began to engage with Romano-Byzantine institutions; this provided valuable experience for refining a new political order, allowing them to adapt administrative and economic structures to their own tribal traditions.

Thus, the power of the Longobard people emerged in Pannonia, strengthened by contacts with the Byzantine Empire—including political alliances forged through marriage, military pacts, and trade, as well as diplomatic missions and the exchange of gifts. The Longobards adopted Romano-Byzantine military organization and warfare strategies, embraced Arian Christianity, assimilated imperial styles and customs (such as weaponry and attire), and adapted and innovated techniques for manufacturing weapons, objects, and jewelry.

Finally, two noble lineages consolidated their positions and subsequently succeeded one another in power: that of the Lethings (from which the “Bavarian” dynasty of Longobard kings would emerge) and that of the Gausi—to which belonged Alboin, the king who conquered the Italian peninsula after establishing the Friulian dynasty at Forum Iulii (Cividale), from which the Beneventan dynasty of Longobard dukes and princes would descend.

• The Italic Phase – The Kingdom

The Longobards established themselves as a military elite settled within the territory, distinguishing themselves from the subject Latin population. The king was generally elected—or confirmed—by the army assembly, a body that over time came to include members of the aristocracy.

Within a few decades of their entry into the Italian peninsula (568)—and following an initial period of stabilization that was at times turbulent—Longobard power consolidated its key pillars: the king and his court; the dukes residing in the peninsula's major cities; the *gastaldi* (royal administrators within the duchies); the *iudices* (judges); the *sculdasci* (officials with military and civil powers, subordinate to the *iudices*); and the *gasindi* (warriors bound to the king or duke by personal ties, acting as officers). Notaries—initially of Roman background—played a crucial role, committing edicts, resolutions, decisions, and judgments to writing. Regarding the administration of justice, the Edict of Rothari and subsequent legislative measures saw popular participation in legal proceedings replaced by a select circle of notables, notaries, and clergy—often termed *boni homines*—who assisted the *iudex*. As the Longobards moved closer to Catholicism, the contribution of the ecclesiastical hierarchy—already well-established in the region—proved to be of fundamental importance.

The overall chain of command—though at times destabilized by the unruly behavior of certain dukes and long shaken by the conflict between proponents of Catholicism and Arianism—was nonetheless capable of stabilizing the peninsula. It fostered new economic growth, driven by the resurgence or emergence of affluent social classes: *possessores* (land and property owners), *mercatores* (merchants), and various categories of artisans and craftspeople. Key cultural strengths in the system’s evolution included—alongside the complex social hierarchy—writing (particularly in the promulgation of laws, edicts, and legal codes), adherence to Catholicism, and mixed marriages. As for the popular assembly, it survived throughout the kingdom’s existence but served an informative rather than a decision-making role. The evolutionary outcome was a transformation of ethnic identity: by the reign of Liutprand (712–744), the term no longer carried an ethnic connotation but rather a social one, distinguishing the ruling class from the *pauperes* (the poor). Intermittent rivalries with the Byzantine Empire, the Pope in Rome, and the Franks did not curb the impact of a people driven by fresh ideals and the pursuit of prosperity—a force that would shake up the peninsula’s stagnant environment, which had long been mired in social and economic crisis.

• The Italic Phase – The Southern Principalities

Longobard power in Southern Italy was consolidated through the transformation of the Duchy of Benevento into a Principality by Duke (and later Prince) Arechis II, the architect of Longobard prestige in the *Mezzogiorno*. Benevento effectively inherited Pavia’s role as the southern capital, a status bolstered by its possession of the national sanctuary of Monte Sant’Angelo—the source of the rapidly spreading and unifying cult of St. Michael the Archangel. Arechis II enriched the city by completing the Santa Sofia complex (now a UNESCO World Heritage site). Salerno, previously a mere *gastaldate* (administrative district) under Benevento, also benefited from this new prosperity.

Arechis II initiated major construction projects there, including his palace of San Pietro a Corte. Defensive wall systems were either reinforced or newly constructed in both cities.

Conceptually, however, the power structure remained unchanged from the days of the Longobard Kingdom; the Longobards continued to operate within existing organizational frameworks. Yet, the management of the territories underwent profound changes due to frequent disputes among Arechis II’s heirs. A turning point came in 849 with the division of territories between Benevento and Salerno, followed in 900 by the establishment of the Principality of Capua. Lands were redistributed among these new centers of power. There ensued a long, repetitive, and complex series of conflicts between the various princes, characterized by shifting alliances.

A new phase of unification emerged under another key figure in Longobard history: Pandulf I "Ironhead" (*Testadiferro*). Between 943 and 981, he succeeded in reuniting the entire Longobard *Mezzogiorno*, adding the territories of the Duchy of Spoleto to his realm—an achievement that disintegrated upon his death. Finally, the historical record shows a web of new conflicts and the recourse to Saracen mercenary-invaders, followed by Norman mercenaries who ultimately seized full power in agreement with the Papacy. In 1076, Salerno—the last stronghold—was conquered, bringing the great Longobard era to a close and giving way to the continued existence of noble Longobard families in the role of feudal lords.

LEGISLATION

Edicts and laws contain essential elements for identifying the key evolutionary dynamics of Longobard society, bypassing the potential filters that obscure the reality of Longobard social structure and its evolution. In summary, while the Edict of Rothari has the merit of capturing a "snapshot" of the Longobard people's ethnic identity—particularly during their Pannonian phase and the early stages of their experience in Italy—subsequent laws (inspired by Catholic Christian ideals and certain principles of Roman law) constitute a genuinely autonomous and original legislative body within the legal landscape of the early medieval Romano-barbarian kingdoms. They also provide objective evidence for identifying the main evolutionary dynamics of Longobard society.

• Edict of Rothari (643) – Its fundamental merit lies in being the first written record of customs and practices; it captures, in particular, the social reality of the Longobards as it had taken shape in the Pannonian region. The Edict defines the kingdom's national identity and establishes a royal treasury system based on fines for serious offenses.
• Laws of Liutprand (713–744) – These reflect the religious dimension of the legislation, placing particular emphasis on family organization (for the protection of women and children); they reduce the importance of the *farae* (kinship-based military groups), whose functional role had diminished; they acknowledge the emergence of a class of landowners (*possessores*); and they highlight the significance of the grouping together of *arimanni*, *exercitales*, and Longobard *fideles*—an expression of a new people whose foundations rested partly on socio-economic values. Consequently, significant transformations occurred in the structure of the army, which was ultimately based on wealth: "war professionals" emerged, rallying around a leader chosen for his bravery, his wealth, or his ability to secure riches for his followers.
• Laws of Ratchis (744–749) – These supplement the Edict of Rothari, revealing—alongside legal continuity—the growing influence of Roman and canon law. Cities became the mandatory seats for *iudices* (magistrates), and corruption was actively prosecuted. While this body of legislation consolidated the state structure, it also reflected internal difficulties and conflicts, as well as the need to strengthen borders.
• Laws of Aistulf (750–751) – The primary aim was mass mobilization within the context of a renewed military consciousness and the reorganization of the army into three levels of specialization (heavy infantry and cavalry; medium infantry; light infantry). These levels were based on wealth—specifically, the ability of those assigned to each role to equip themselves at their own expense. The regulations notably mandated that the merchant class equip themselves with armor and a horse. Finally, the obligation to serve in the army or the *sculca* (local police or guard duties) was made mandatory.
• Edicts of Arechis II and Adelchis (late 8th century) – Responses to the need to adapt to new social and legal requirements in the southern region.

RELIGION

The religious leanings of the Longobard people across the various stages of their European journey mark the evolution of their culture. In the initial tribal phase, their beliefs centered on the Norse pantheon, with a particular devotion to Frea—goddess of fertility and magic—and Wotan, god of war and wisdom. These deities embodied the fundamental social needs of early times—sustenance and defense—underpinned by a magical view of the natural world.

Their arrival in the Pannonian region brought them into contact with Arian Christianity and the customs and traditions of the Byzantine Empire. Without abandoning their pagan roots, the Longobards began to engage with a different set of values.

The two phases of their presence in Italy (the kingdom and the southern principalities) necessitated decisive choices and helped shape a new continental landscape—one that saw the emergence, born of Christian ideals, of the first unified concept of a "Europe of all the peoples inhabiting it." It was a landscape in which the Longobards, through their gradual conversion to Catholicism, also played an active role.

The contribution of Christian-Catholic ideals to the Longobard state and social system took on multiple dimensions, as it:

• provided the Longobard aristocracy with a network of organizational support (primarily the local clergy and parish churches) to facilitate the integration and control of the Romanic population;
• fostered and simplified the process of adapting and replacing pagan deities with sanctified figures within the Longobard religious worldview—such as Saint Michael the Archangel assuming the role previously held by Wotan;
• inspired legislation and provided decisive, unifying guidance in the fusion of traditions and cultures that would give rise to the new Longobard culture as a "primary root of European culture."

In turn, the Longobard aristocracy contributed to Catholicism by:

• establishing and expanding monasteries, abbeys, and churches;
• providing financial endowments for the development of these religious institutions;
• promoting and protecting the figures of saints, who remain objects of veneration and serve as symbols of identity for many local communities.

Veneration of Saints

During the Longobard era, the possession of saints' relics became a source of identity and prestige for various local communities, as well as a means for kings, dukes, and aristocrats to assert their superior authority by financing the construction of—or enriching the endowments for—the sacred buildings that housed these relics. A striking example involves the remains of Saint Augustine, which King Liutprand had retrieved from Corsica to honor within the mausoleum-church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro—a structure he had commissioned in Pavia, the kingdom's capital. Other examples of equally intense and enduring devotion include the cults of Saint Januarius in Naples and Saint Julia in Brescia. All these instances demonstrate the genuine and active integration into the Catholic fold of the heirs to those Longobards once branded as "most nefarious" in early medieval accounts.

 

Power and religion—throughout history, forms of power have drawn—and continue to draw—inspiration from ideal principles, generally of a religious nature. This same tendency was evident among the Longobards, accompanying the stages of their cultural evolution, which were closely linked to the exercise of power. As with other Germanic peoples, the primary religious figure for the warlike Longobard tribe was the god of war and wisdom: Odin. On the Italian peninsula, the contact between the Longobards of Benevento (early 6th century) and the pre-existing, Byzantine-imported cult of the Archangel Michael—centered in a cave on the Gargano—led to a remarkable process of transition: the attributes of Odin were recognized in the Archangel, the warrior leader of the heavenly hosts.

A Cult That Endures – Devotion to Saint Michael spread rapidly, leading to the replication of the symbolic grotto and the construction of numerous churches that, at the time, served as a link between the populace and the secular authority of kings and dukes. The cult spread throughout the Italian peninsula and across Europe (with Mont-Saint-Michel being a striking example) and remains the object of profound popular devotion—so much so that, in 2011, it was one of the key criteria cited by UNESCO for the inclusion of the Michaelic Sanctuary of Monte Sant’Angelo on the World Heritage List. This devotion has also been reaffirmed at the highest religious levels: in 2013, two popes—Benedict XVI and Francis—jointly inaugurated a bronze monument in the Vatican Gardens in Rome, inspired by the protective figure of Saint Michael the Archangel.